I always used to get so impatient when cooking grains or legumes. Instead of really looking into it, I'd just dump about equal parts millet and water into a pot, crank up the heat and come back to it later to deal with it. It never seemed to work out. It turns out that all grains and legumes really want are a little bit of attention. If you take that extra second to give them the water and heat they need, they'll sing to you and come out perfect every time, regardless of how much you're making. The time it takes to refer to the below chart will more than make up for itself compared to guessing and wasting time trying to fix the situation later. So keep it handy! I actually have a printed out copy taped to the inside of one of my cupboard door so I have no excuse.

Cooking grains and legumes simply involves exposing them to a certain amount of water and heat until they have absorbed a specific amount of water. When grains and legumes are exposed to this water and heat, their starch granules and proteins swell as they hydrate and they get softer as a result. If the starch granules absorb too much water, they can rupture and some of the starch will leak outside the grain or legume and start to thicken the water. This starch rupturing is desired in certain starch-thickened sauces utilizing such thickeners as corn starch, potato starch or tapioca starch. It's undesirable in cooked grains and legumes because they are usually preferred whole and intact.

Grains should always be rinsed before cooking. Rinsing removes any dust as well as surface starches that can contribute harsh bitter flavors. This is especially true with quinoa.

It's important to always soak legumes for 8 to 24 hours in water then drain because they contain complex sugars called oligosaccharides. These eight glucose molecule chains are unable to be broken down in the small intestine like most other foods and are instead passed into the colon where they're digested by bacteria which create intestinal gas as a byproduct. Soaking the legumes in water allows enzymes in the beans to break down the oligosaccharides into smaller sugars so they can be digested in the small intestine, resulting in less intestinal gas. Boiling legumes does not break these oligosaccharides down. Soaking will also allow them to cook faster and use less energy from your burner. Feel free to soak legumes and freeze them for later use. Just don't pre-boil them before soaking because this will deactivate the enzymes that break down the oligosaccharides, leaving them intact.

The chart below details how much water and how much time 1 cup of grains or legumes would need to cook completely at simmering temperature (about 200F or 93C) in a saucepan that's covered or semi-covered. Please note that all measurements are approximate. Happy simmering!

Cooking Times for Grains and Beans

1 Cup Grain or Legume	Water Needed	Cooking Time	Cups Yeilded
Adzuki Beans	4 cups (945 mL)	50 minutes	3 cups (710 mL)
Anasazi Beans	2 ¾ cups (650 mL)	50 minutes	2 ¼ cups (530 mL)
Amaranth	2 cups (475 mL)	30 minutes	2 ½ cups (590 mL)
Barley, whole	3 cups (710 mL)	50 minutes	3 ½ cups (830 mL)
Barley, pearled	2 ½ cups (590 mL)	40 minutes	3 ½ cups (830 mL)
Black Beans	4 cups (945 mL)	1 hour, 15 minutes	2 ¼ cups (530 mL)
Black-eyed Peas	3 cups (710 mL)	1 hour	2 cups (475 mL)
Buckwheat	2 cups (475 mL)	15 minutes	3 ½ cups (830 mL)
Cannellini Beans	3 cups (710 mL)	45 minutes	2 ½ cups (590 mL)
Chickpeas (Garbanzo Beans)	4 cups (945 mL)	1 hour, 15 minutes	2 cups (475 mL)
Fava Beans	3 cups (710 mL)	50 minutes	1 ¾ cups (415 mL)
Kamut	3 cups (710 mL)	40 minutes	2 ½ cups (590 mL)
Kidney Beans	3 cups (710 mL)	1 hour	2 ¼ cups (530 mL)
Lima Beans	4 cups (945 mL)	1 hour	2 ½ cups (590 mL)
Millet	3 cups (710 mL)	30 minutes	3 ½ cups (830 mL)
Mung Beans	2 ½ cups (590 mL)	1 hour	2 cups (475 mL)
Navy Bean	3 cups (710 mL)	50 minutes	2 ¾ cups (650 mL)
Oats, whole	3 cups (710 mL)	1 hour	3 ½ cups (830 mL)
Oats, rolled	2 ½ cups (590 mL)	15 minutes	3 ½ cups (830 mL)
Orzo	2 cups (475 mL)	20 minutes	3 cups (710 mL)
Peas, green	6 cups (1.4 L)	1 hour, 30 minutes	2 cups (475 mL)
Pinto beans	3 cups (710 mL)	1 hour, 15 minutes	2 ¾ cups (650 mL)
Quinoa	2 cups (475 mL)	20 minutes	2 ¾ cups (650 mL)
Rice: Short Brown	2 cups (475 mL)	55 minutes	3 cups (710 mL)
Rice: Long Brown	1 ½ cups (355 mL)	45 minutes	3 cups (710 mL)
Rice: Brown Basmati	1 ½ cups (355 mL)	45 minutes	3 cups (710 mL)
Rice: Short White	1 ½ cups (355 mL)	15 minutes	3 cups (710 mL)
Rice: Long White	2 cups (475 mL)	15 minutes	3 cups (710 mL)
Rice: White Basmati	1 ¾ cups (415 mL)	35 minutes	3 cups (710 mL)
Rice: Wild	2 ½ cups (590 mL)	50 minutes	4 cups (945 mL)
Rye, whole	2 ½ cups (590 mL)	1 hour	3 cups (710 mL)
Rye, flaked	3 cups (710 mL)	30 minutes	3 cups (710 mL)
Spelt	3 cups (710 mL)	25 minutes	2 ½ cups (590 mL)
Teff	4 cups (945 mL)	20 minutes	3 ½ cups (830 mL)
Wheat	3 cups (710 mL)	1 hour	2 ½ cups (590 mL)
Soy beans	4 cups (945 mL)	3 hours, 30 minutes	3 cups (710 mL)

North Americans are the only people on earth that measure baking ingredients by volume: cups, Tablespoons and teaspoons. The rest of the world measures by weight which is significantly more accurate, having more benefit as your recipe scales up into larger quantities.

Sometimes you just don't have the right ingredients on hand that your recipe calls for or you don't feel like shelling out hard earned funds for something you're just going to use a small amount of. Walk how many blocks in the snow at 2am to get cake flour? Yeah right. This Baking Substitution page (it lives permanently under the Resources tab) is here to help and will be constantly updated as new baking substitutions are found. If you have any conversions you'd like to have listed here to help bakers around the world, don't hesitate to let me know about them!

Chocolate Substitutions

Chocolate	Substitution	Notes
3 Tablespoons cocoa powder, dutch processed	3 Tablespoons natural unsweetened cocoa powder + 1/8 teaspoon baking soda
3 Tablespoons cocoa powder, natural unsweetened	3 Tablespoons dutch processed cocoa powder + 1/8 teaspoon cream of tartar, white vinegar or lemon juice
1 ounce unsweetened baking chocolate	3 Tablespoons cocoa powder + 1 Tablespoon Regular Vegan Butter, margarine, Vegan Shortening or store bought shortening or coconut oil	Melt ingredients together and whisk until smooth.
1 ounce semisweet baking chocolate	½ teaspoon unsweetened baking chocolate + 1 Tablespoon sugar	Melt ingredients together and whisk until smooth.
1 Tablespoon carob powder	1 Tablespoon cocoa powder

Egg Substitutions

For egg substitutions please check out the extensive Egg Replacer section.

Emulsifier Substitutions

Emulsifier	Substitution	Notes
1 teaspoon liquid soy lecithin or liquid sunflower lecithin	2 ¼ teaspoons soy lecithin powder	This substitution is done by weight. 1 teaspoon liquid soy lecithin weighs 5 grams.

Fat Substitutions

Fat	Substitution	Notes
1 cup margarine, butter or Vegan Butter	1 cup Vegan Shortening or store bought shortening or coconut oil + 2 Tablespoons water
1 stick margarine, butter or Vegan Butter	½ cup Vegan Shortening or store bought shortening or coconut oil + 1 Tablespoon water
1 stick salted butter	1 stick margarine + ¼ teaspoon salt or ½ cup Vegan Butter

Flour Substitutions

Flour	Substitution	Notes
1 cup all-purpose flour	½ cup cake flour + ½ cup whole wheat flour 1 cup + 2 Tablespoons cake flour
1 cup bread flour	1 cup all-purpose flour + 1 teaspoon gluten flour
1 cup cake flour	¾ cup + 2 Tablespoons all-purpose flour + 2 Tablespoons cornstarch	Since cake flour is only 6 to 8 percent protein, it lends a more tender, soft texture to cakes than all-purpose.
1 cup pastry flour	2/3 cup all-purpose flour + 1/3 cup cake flour
1 cup self-rising flour	1 cup all-purpose flour plus 1 ½ teaspoons baking powder and ½ teaspoon salt.	You probably won't ever need to use self-rising flour because most recipes worth their salt call for their chemical-based leaveners such as baking powder and baking soda to be added separately. Just in case you do come across this in a recipe though, keep this conversion in mind.
1 cup whole wheat flour	cup + 2 Tablespoons flour + 2 Tablespoons wheat germ

Leavening Substitutions

Leavening Agent	Substitution	Notes
1 teaspoon double acting baking powder	½ teaspoon cream of tartar + ¼ teaspoon baking soda + ¼ teaspoon corn starch	As a rule of thumb add 1 teaspoon baking powder and ¼ teaspoon baking soda per 1 cup of flour in cakes.
1 teaspoon cream of tartar	2 teaspoons lemon juice or white vinegar
1, ¼ oz package of active dry yeast	2 ¼ teaspoons active dry yeast 2 ¼ Tablespoons bulk yeast 1 compressed yeast cake

Non-Dairy Milk Substitutions

Milk	Substitution	Notes
1 cup buttermilk	1 cup non-dairy milk + 2 teaspoons apple cider vinegar or lemon juice.	Whisk the ingredients together and let them sit for about 10 minutes so they curdle slightly.
1 cup buttermilk	¼ cup silken tofu + ¾ cup water + 1 Tablespoon lemon juice or vinegar + pinch of salt	Blend ingredients until smooth.
1 cup evaporated milk	1 cup coconut milk
1 cup cream or half and half	¾ cup + 1 Tablespoon soy milk and 3 Tablespoons melted Regular Vegan Butter or margarine	Whisk the ingredients together until smooth.

Spice and Flavoring Substitutions

Spice or Flavoring	Substitution	Notes
1 teaspoon allspice	½ teaspoon cinnamon, ¼ teaspoon cloves, ¼ nutmeg
1 teaspoon apple pie spice	½ teaspoon cinnamon, ¼ nutmeg, 1/8 teaspoon allspice, 1/8 teaspoon cardamom
1 teaspoon citrus zest	½ teaspoon citrus oil	1 lemon has about 1 ½ teaspoons of zest
¼ cup coffee	2 Tablespoons instant espresso powder + 3 Tablespoons hot water	Whisk with a fork until espresso powder is dissolved
1 Tablespoon minced ginger	1 ½ teaspoons ginger powder + ½ teaspoon lemon juice
1 Teaspoon pumpkin pie spice	¼ teaspoon ginger, 1/8 teaspoon nutmeg and 1/8 teaspoon cloves
1 teaspoon table salt	1 ½ teaspoon kosher salt	Kosher salt crystals are bigger and take up more space
1 vanilla bean	1 Tablespoon vanilla extract 1 ½ teaspoons vanilla powder
1 lemon	3 Tablespoons lemon juice
1 teaspoon dried herbs	2 teaspoons fresh herbs

Starch Substitutions

1 Tablespoon arrowroot flour = 2 Tablespoons all-purpose flour = 1 Tablespoon ClearJel = 1 Tablespoon corn starch = 1 Tablespoon potato flour = 1 Tablespoon tapioca flour

Sweetener Substitutions

Sweetener	Substitution	Notes
1 cup agave syrup	1 1/3 cup sugar	Agave syrup is about 40 percent sweeter than sugar. It is about as sweet as maple syrup and honey.
1 cup dark corn syrup	1 cup dark agave syrup ¾ cup light corn syrup + ¼ cup light molasses
1 cup light corn syrup	1 cup amber agave syrup 1 ¼ sugar + 1/3 cup water
1 cup honey	1 1/3 cup sugar 1 cup maple syrup
1 cup light brown sugar	1 cup white sugar + 1 Tablespoon molasses	Brown sugar is just white sugar that has had molasses added back to it. So why buy brown sugar like a sucker when you can just have one type of sugar on hand and add molasses as you see fit? Put the white sugar and molasses in a food processor and give a it a couple pulses to make brown sugar.
1 cup dark brown sugar	1 cup white sugar + 2 Tablespoons molasses	Brown sugar is just white sugar that has had molasses added back to it. So why buy brown sugar like a sucker when you can just have one type of sugar on hand and add molasses as you see fit? Put the white sugar and molasses in a food processor and give a it a couple pulses to make brown sugar.
1 cup maple syrup	1 1/3 cups sugar, increase liquid in recipe by ¼ cup ½ cup maple sugar, increase liquid in recipe by ¼ cup	When converting from sugar to maple syrup reduce your recipe's liquid by 2 to 4 Tablespoons per 1 cup of maple syrup. Maple syrup is slightly acidic, which will deactivate your baking powder if it's not neutralized by other alkaline ingredients like baking soda. This can cause cakes to have issues with rising. When converting to maple syrup in recipes where baking powder is used, add an extra ¼ to ½ teaspoon baking soda to account for maple syrup's acidity. Maple syrup caramelizes at a lower temperature which may cause problems for some recipes. In these cases, decrease oven temperature by 25F (4C) and increase baking times slightly.
1 cup molasses	¾ cup dark brown sugar + 1 teaspoon cream of tartar

Tablespoons image by bobshowrocks via Flickr

These days with all the food additives used in food production, eating food can be like navigating a minefield. In order to make your vegan baking adventures easier while keeping the animals where they belong, we've posted this list of animal products (thanks PETA).

Please note that the world of food science is always changing. This means that the way food ingredients are derived changes due to technology, necessity and the efforts of animal rights activists. Depending on these factors some of the ingredients on this list may change from being animal derived to vegan or vice versa at any time.

Since obtaining this list from PETA, we've been updating it whenever we notice that a particular food product is derived from a different source. Over time, more and more of the ingredients on this list are being derived from plant sources.